ESSAY - Message of Romans with reference to its historical setting and relevant critical issues.
What is the message of Romans? I.
Howard Marshall[1]
describes Romans as ‘the most sustained doctrinal discussion in Paul’s
letters.’ He goes on to say, ‘It centers on the place of Jews and Gentiles in
God's saving purpose, defends Paul’s understanding of salvation by grace, [and]
shows how this works out in the new life of those who are justified by faith,
... ’ [2]
Critical issues of the Epistle to the Romans include its purpose and message,
while other points I will examine include its author, historical setting, genre
and literary integrity.
Historical Setting
Paul of Tarsus is the undisputed author of the letter to the
Roman church. He identifies himself in the first word of the salutation,[3]
identifies himself as a Jew by birth ‘... for the sake of my brothers, those of
my own race, the people of Israel.’,[4]
and his calling as ‘... the apostle to the Gentiles ...’.[5]
[6]
The work derives its canonical name from the recipients, not from the name of
the author, ‘... all God's beloved in Rome’.[7]
It was dictated to Tertius,[8]
who was acting as Paul’s amanuensis or secretary. This letter was written in
Corinth at the height of Paul’s apostolic career, around 55-57 AD. It was his
last epistle as a free man, representing his mature thought, and shows great
theological maturity.[9]
Paul’s religious views are important and are reflected in
his thoughts and writing. He had a Pharisaic background, had been a student of
the great Gamaliel, and was a Hellenistic Jew. In Acts 23:6 he describes
himself as ‘a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee.’ He has a deep concern for the
Hebrew people, which runs through the letter. Equally important is his
conversion and calling to follow Christ. “I stand on trial because of my hope
in the resurrection of the dead."[10]
Genre
‘Romans falls naturally into the major category of “letter”.’[11]
Moo further refines the classification as a tractate or treatise, having a
general theological argument at its heart.[12]
DeSilva describes the framework as being in the form of a diatribe,[13]
which allows Paul to present his case by using a ‘question and answer’ format,
that enables listeners to hear the answers to arguments they may not have
articulated, however Moo is reluctant to ascribe this to the whole letter.[14]
It would appear that there is little agreement on the exact genre or style of
this letter, as its internal structure varies greatly between sections. DeSilva
concludes that ‘Romans contains a lengthy, coherent, unified argument
concerning the relationship of Jew and Gentile to God and each other in the one
body of Christ.’[15] This
sounds to me to be an appropriate description.
One of the unique features of Romans is that “This letter to
the church in Rome is the only extant epistle written by Paul to a church he
did not found, and to a community he had never visited.”[16]
Purpose:
Paul appears to have had a number of reasons for writing
this letter that affect its length, scope and content. The following points sum
these up:
Firstly, he wished to inform the Rome church of his
intention to come to Rome to preach, and then to travel on to Spain.[17]
Paul had been preaching for at least 20 years, ten of these while travelling around
the territories bordering the Aegean Sea, evangelising and planting churches.
He now desired “to preach the gospel where Christ was not known, so that I
would not be building on someone else’s foundation.”[18]
This would also allow him to go to Rome, a city he had planned to visit for some
time, before continuing on to Spain. Burkett suggests that he may have been
hoping to receive financial support from the congregation in Rome.[19]
Secondly, Paul takes the opportunity to explain his gospel
more fully. He covers a wide range of theological themes: sin, death,
salvation, grace, faith, righteousness, justification, sanctification,
redemption, resurrection and glorification. Romans 1:1-6 outline part of his
gospel message: God promised the gospel beforehand through the prophets as
written in the Holy Scriptures; Christ ‘... who as to his human nature was a
descendant of David’ [20],
was declared through the Spirit to be the Son of God, resurrection from the
dead; grace that calls Gentiles to the obedience that comes from faith.[21]
Paul believed Jesus to be the promised anointed one, the
Messiah, the Christ, who was descended from David. He had died for our sins in
accordance with the Holy Scriptures, as promised through God's prophets. ‘He
was delivered over to death for our sins and raised to life for our justification.’[22]
Thirdly, he wanted to address issues that were affecting the
Roman Church. It is likely that he had received reports of dissention amongst
the Roman congregation from the twenty-six friends and acquaintances he greets
at the end of the letter,[23]
and of disharmony between Jews and Gentiles. Some of these problems stemmed
from the Gentile Christian remnant group having grown considerably in the years
since Claudius had expelled many of the Jewish Christians in 49 AD.[24]
It is possible that one of these congregational conflicts may have concerned
the ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ issue.[25]
Fourthly, Paul requests prayer support and active
intercession for his impending trip to Jerusalem with the gift for the saints
there, as he is keenly aware of the dangers he faces.[26]
Paul may also have been concerned regarding the necessity of an acknowledgement
by the Jerusalem authorities as to the legitimacy of his mission to the
Gentiles, and the unity of the church.[27]
Fifthly, a number of authors also suggest that Paul may have
intended this letter as a last will and testament, as he appears to fear for
his life during his visit to Jerusalem.[28]
Literary Integrity
There has been much discussion over whether Chapter 16 might
be a later addition to Romans, and to have actually been part of a letter to
Ephesus, due both to its inclusion and exclusion, and changing location in
various documents in the early history of the church.[29]
The use of the phrase ‘... of the mystery hidden for long ages past,’[30]
and its similarity to ideas expressed in Ephesians[31]
is said to support the view that this chapter is a later addition.
Burkett suggests ‘the textual variations and the possibility
that Romans 14:1-20 was directed to Ephesus instead of Rome suggest that
different forms of the letter once existed and were sent to different locations’.[32] Moo concludes ‘that the letter Paul
wrote to Rome contained all sixteen chapters found in modern texts and
translations’, and that the number of greetings is not great enough to overcome
the external evidence in favour of this.[33]
DeSilva summarises this argument by saying that Romans 16:25-27 ‘... has
captured the major themes of Romans in this liturgical summary.’[34]
Interpretation:
The interpretation of Romans has caused much dissension
between Christians over the centuries. ‘Philip
Melanchthon, one of the great theological minds of the Reformation, described
Romans as “an outline and compendium of all Christian doctrine.”’[35] DeSilva says that
‘a tragic irony emerges’ when we actually consider the information contained in
Romans, and the practical advice Paul gives to prevent discord.[36]
I believe that Paul gives the best advice;
to ‘Accept one another, then, just as Christ accepted you, in order to bring
praise to God.’[37]
“Tertullian in his Adversus Marcionem of 208 AD seems to have read Romans as a
theological treatise; Martin Luther ... said of Romans that “it appears that he
[Paul] wanted in this one epistle to sum up briefly the whole Christian and
evangelical doctrine.” John Calvin viewed it as expounding “justification by
faith” in a “methodical fashion”.”[38]
Key Theme of Romans
The key thematic statement of Romans is found in verses
1:16-17. In 1:15 Paul proclaims his eagerness to preach, and in 1:16-17 he
declares:
“For I am not ashamed of the gospel, because it is
the power of God that brings salvation to everyone who
believes: first to the Jew, then to the Gentile. For in the
gospel the righteousness of God is revealed – a righteousness that is by
faith from first to last, just as it is written: “The righteous will
live by faith.”
Paul is not ashamed of his gospel because it holds the power
of God. He acknowledges the historical priority of the Jews in salvation, but
says it is also for the Gentile. The quote from Habakkuk 2:4 reinforces the
idea that it is through faith that the righteous will live.[39]
‘Jews and Gentiles are all sinners under divine judgement.’[40]
All are now justified through faith, with no requirement for circumcision or
following Torah Law. Romans 3:21-31 articulates salvation through Christ’s
death, and God's desire to demonstrate his justice.
Paul feels a debt or obligation
to preach the gospel Jesus Christ has entrusted him with. As an apostle to the Gentiles
he was therefore “eager to preach the gospel also to you who are at Rome.”[41]
Burkett sees the key theme as being the relationship between
Jews and Gentiles, both in salvation and in the concrete circumstances of the
church.[42]
He sees this theme worked out in the three main divisions of the letter. In
Romans 1-8, Paul takes the position that observance of the Law has no effect on
salvation,[43]
while the knowledge of sin does, as ‘Indeed, I would not have known what sin
was except through the Law.’[44]
This theme continues in Romans 9-11, where Paul questions why Gentiles found it
easier to accept the Jewish Messiah, rather than the Jews. Paul’s conclusion is
that this is part of God's plan, and he is certain that ‘all Israel will be
saved’,[45]
‘for God has bound all men over to disobedience so that he may have mercy on
them all.’[46] In
Romans 14-15 the salvation theme recurs. Here Paul calls for the members of the
church to neither judge nor look down on a weaker brother,[47]
and accept each other.
Message:
The major theme of Romans 1-8 regards the righteousness of
God, and his faithfulness to the covenant obligations and promises he has made,
firstly with the people of Israel, and later with the Gentiles. Paul argues
that God's standards do not differentiate between Jew and Gentile: “There is no
difference, for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, and are
justified freely by his grace through the redemption that came by Christ
Jesus.”[48]
This passage is regarded as very important, because the sinner is declared
righteous by God purely by God's grace through faith in Christ.
Abraham is the prototype for both Jew and Gentile in the
church, because the ‘faith that was credited to him as righteousness’ was
before he was circumcised, while he was still a Gentile.[49]
Paul emphasises Abraham was to be the father of many nations, not just Israel.
Romans 9-11 has now come to be valued as an integral, even
climatic part of Paul’s argument, and not a sermon composed for another
occasion, as C. H. Dodd believes.[50]
Here Paul looks more deeply at the issues that have divided the church in Rome,
pointing to the presence of a remnant of Israel among the community of the
saved in God.[51] This
is so the gospel could go out to the Gentiles. ‘The natural branches (Israel)
had to be cut off, to make room for the wild branches (Gentiles) to be grafted
into the chosen root of Abraham.’[52]
Paul's greatest personal sorrow regards the faithlessness of
God's chosen people, the Jews. He argues that God is still faithful despite
Israel’s faithlessness, and the promise of salvation has not been taken away
from them, only to be given to the Gentiles. There is merely a reversal of
order – first to the Gentiles, then also to the Jews. Paul's method of
preaching is to persuade the Gentiles first, in the hope that this will cause
jealousy among the Jews, and have an impact on the unbelievers:[53]
‘I am talking to you Gentiles. Inasmuch as I am the apostle to the Gentiles, I
make much of my ministry in the hope that I may somehow arouse my own people to
envy and save some of them.’[54]
Paul encourages the believers to live together in a
Christian community, were a life of obedience is a grateful response to God's
generosity.[55] He
urges the believers ‘In view of God's mercy, to offer your bodies as living
sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God – this is your spiritual act of worship.’[56]
Lessons for today
Romans 12:1-13:14 offers relevant lessons that the modern
church can learn from. We too live in a time when there are diverse cultural
elements within each local church, and divisions within the greater Christian
church. We are also called to live in a spirit of unity and harmony, practicing
regular hospitality with other members of the church family, being active in
the greater community, especially where there is hardship or poverty, being
willing and eager to serve others, and to not pass judgement on matters which
are not essentials of the faith. ‘Our gifts are to be used in the service of
God, being the means whereby the believer’s faith is enacted in love.[57]
‘Accept one another, then, just as Christ accepted you, in order to bring
praise to God.’[58]
In my local church this means that we run an active
foodbank, supplying not just non-perishable grocery items, but also fresh baked
goods that remain unsold at the end of the business day from a number of local
bakeries to families in need. Members are actively involved in a number of
mentoring programmes, including Project K to teenagers and another project to
support young mums. Although we are a relatively small church, with around 60
adult members, and twice that many children and youth, there are weekly adult
Bible study, and youth group meetings. I started going to the Bible study
before I became a Christian, and was the first non-Christian they had ever had
do this.
Conclusion
Paul's message in his letter to the church in Rome is still
valid to us today. It reminds us of the basic form of the good news of Jesus
Christ, and God's saving purposes for his chosen people, both Gentile and Jew.
We are called to love our neighbour as ourselves, and not pass judgement on
others. Our righteousness comes through faith in God.
[1]
I. Howard Marshall, A Concise New Testament Theology. Downers Grove,
Illinois, USA/Nottingham England. InterVarsity Press. 2008.
[3] The Holy Bible, New International Version: Study Bible (Fully Revised). Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan, 1973. Romans 1:1.
[6]
Richard N. Longenecker, Introducing Romans: critical issues in Paul’s most
famous letter. Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA/Cambridge, UK. William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company. 2011. 3.
[9] Charles D. Myer, Jnr. The Anchor Bible
Dictionary: Volume 5. New York, New York. USA. Doubleday. 1992. 816.
[11]
David A. DeSilva. An Introduction to the New Testament: contexts, methods
and ministry. Downers Grove, Illinois, USA. InterVarsity Press. 2004. 604.
[12]
Douglas J. Moo. The Epistle to the Romans. Rapids, Michigan,
USA/Cambridge, UK. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand 1996. 14.
[22] Ibid., Romans 4:25. See also Isaiah 53:12.
[27]
Paul J. Achtemeier. The New Testament: its literature and theology.
Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA/Cambridge, UK. William B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company. 2001. 301.
[28] NIV. Romans 15:31.
Delbert
Burkett. An introduction to the New Testament and the origins of
Christianity. Cambridge, UK.
Cambridge University Press. 2002. 320.
Moo. 18.
Longenecker. 101. Quoting Bornkamm.
Stott. 59.
[48] Ibid., Romans 3:23-24.
[49] Ibid., Romans 4:09-12; Gen 17:1-14.
[50] DeSilva. 619.
[51] NIV., Romans 11:1-6.
[52] DeSilva. 624.
NIV. Romans 11:11-24.
[54] NIV. Romans 11:13-14.
[55] DeSilva. 625.
[56] NIV. Romans 12:1, cf
6:13, 19; 7:4.
[58] Ibid., Romans 15:7.
Prophecy Essay:
The intention of this essay is to discuss the function of ‘the prophet’ in Israel from the time of the monarchy through to the post exilic period. I will also examine the degree to which these functions carry over into the New Testament period, and the implications it might have for Christianity today.
Prophecy was instituted by, and regarded as, the revealed word of Adonai, that came directly to man, ‘received’ rather than produced by the human mind. It was a direct revelation into the Kingdom of God, regarding the current human situation and the future. It was usually highly practical, strongly ethical, contextual and exhortatory. Deuteronomy identifies Moses as the great prophet sent from Adonai, the model of one who is to come, the one who instituted the law. There is a strong relationship between the prophet and the Sinai Covenant, which had been voluntarily entered into, and formed the essential basis for prophecy.
The Hebrew root word nabi, meaning ‘to call’, is translated in Greek as prophētēs, which can mean ‘to speak for, proclaim’, or ‘to speak beforehand, foretell’. The prophet of God was thus called to be the mouthpiece of God, his messenger whose task was to deliver whatever God said to him, both forthtelling and foretelling. During the early period of the monarchy the terms seer and prophet were used interchangeably.
Prophets were ‘advisors to the kings’, and served to give legitimacy to a new dynasty, rather than messengers to the people. The prophets Nathan and Gad were advisers to David, and Elijah to Ahab. Prophets were also sought out for a number of other purposes.
When the elders of Israel rejected Adonai as their king, calling for one ‘such as all the other nations have’, Samuel was displeased, and warned them what such a king would do. Adonai told Samuel to ‘Listen to them and give them a king.’ He later proclaimed Saul as the divinely anointed king, on the instructions of the Lord. Samuel, combining the roles of judge, priest, leader, ‘prophet of the Lord’ and seer, is seen as the beginning of the classical period of prophetic development in ancient Israel at the time of the monarchy. His key role becomes ‘God’s voice’ to the king.
Most of the kings in the monarchical period refused at some point or other to listen to their prophets. When this occurred, it became necessary for the prophet to speak to the leaders and the priests. Isaiah spoke against religious hypocrisy, unjust leadership and idolatry. The prophets speak directly to the people when ignored by priests and rulers. This often resulted in conflict between court/temple prophets and free prophets.
There are a number of references to the Spirit of God acting to anoint, admonish and comfort in pre-exilic prophecy, from Samuel through to Isaiah. The Spirit of God continues to be the motive force behind prophetic gifts during the exilic and post-exilic periods.
The test of a true prophet is defined as whether or not his prophesies come to pass. Sometimes this would not occur during the prophet’s lifetime. This is particularly true of the messianic prophecies, and those of pre-exilic prophets who predicted the destruction of Israel. A ‘true’ prophet was supposed to participate in the divine council or receive words directly from the hand of the Lord. The compiler of Kings regarded a group of prophets based at the high places in Canaan as having ‘a deceiving spirit’, due to their embracing various forms of syncretism. The ideal form of worship is worship of Adonai in Jerusalem. All other sanctuaries are idolatrous. While Jehoshaphat’s prophets predicted victory, Micaiah prophesied disaster – a true prophetic word which was ignored. Amos and Hosea in the North, and Micah and Isaiah in the south maintained absolute loyalty to Adonai and his word. Jeremiah explicitly distinguishes true prophecy from dreams and visions. Later, his confrontation with Hananiah demonstrates the difference between true and false prophecy.
The authority of Adonai is encapsulated in three formulae. The first is the messenger formula: “Thus saith the Lord.” This conveys how Adonai sees things and his plans. The second is the message reception formula: “The word of the Lord came unto me.” The third is the oracle formula “… says/uttered the Lord”. Prophets conveyed God's message using the language of reproach and threat, and by contributing their own personal reflections and reasoning.
John Schmitt sees four major themes in the messages of the prophets. The first is that of the people’s relationship with Adonai. Israel must worship only him, and right worship of God requires right treatment of one’s neighbour. The moral sovereignty of Adonai parallels his sovereign majesty, and his judgement. God has a special concern and passion for humanity and for Israel in particular, and reveals his plans through his prophets.
The second major theme is that of Israel’s unfaithfulness as a people, and the deterioration of their collective soul. The rise and history of prophecy coincides with that of the monarchy which frequently allowed and encouraged both the social and religious Canaanisation of Israelite culture.
The third theme is that of the relationship between God and Israel: Adonai is variously described as the parent of Israel, the shepherd, and the King. The relationship is described in terms of marriage, and separation is likened to divorce. The metaphor of covenant was not used frequently in pre-exilic times, but gained popularity later.
The final theme is that of the future. While some of the pre-exilic prophets focus on immediate problems, and the immediate future that Israel’s infidelity would bring, Amos and Jeremiah see little hope for the future, due to the way Israel has lived. Israel has reached a new stage in its relationship with Adonai.
In Jeremiah the Lord declares that the days are coming ‘when I will make a new covenant with the house of Isra’el and with the house of Y’hudah’ ... ‘I will put my Torah within them and write it on their hearts.’ The new covenant would be put into effect with the shedding of the blood of Yeshua. This in no way replaced the Sinai Covenant, which continued to be observed, particularly by Yeshua.
Isaiah’s imagery of a future king is used in later times to provide ideas of messianic expectation.
Themes of hope and encouragement, and reminders of Adonai’s covenant and the completion of his redemptive purpose became prominent as Israel entered the Second Temple period. While Israel had always been called to be a light to the nations, these ideas became more important with the loss of the temple. Eschatology rose to greater prominence, with more references being made to the ‘latter days’ or ‘those days’. The phrase ‘the time/day is coming’ is taken by Christians to refer to the coming messianic era.
Towards the end of the Babylonian exile, the reestablishment of formal worship and the kingdom and throne of David marked a major attitude change needed to preserve Israel’s separate identity. Haggai and Zechariah regard the rebuilding of the temple as crucial. Prophecy looked to still-future blessings where there would be judgement and an age of righteousness and peace.
Schmitt, following Plöger (1968) and Hanson (1975), states that prophets became temple officials who produced liturgical texts, however there is no scriptural proof of this. It appears only a minority of prophets protested against the increasingly static and complacent institutions of Second Temple Judaism. Trito-Isaiah, in particular, attacks “form without substance”, such as solemn fasts that are unaccompanied by social justice, and prophesies that Adonai will punish Israel for their unreformed lives.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The nature of prophecy in the New Testament serves as a proclamation of revelation, and as such is similar to that of the Old Testament. Its revelatory nature is clearly assumed, and there is no indication of change in its character. Luke and John demonstrate the importance of Isaiah to church Christology by citing him by name around twenty times, appealing to his wisdom to explain the events of their own day.
Yeshua combined the roles of popular, oracular and leadership prophets, bringing his own distinct message. The interpretation of Scripture as a whole, including that of the biblical prophets, was a significant part of his work. He argued and understood the role of Torah in the life of the common people, and the purposes it had served to prosper the ruling elite in the oppression of the am ha aretz; the people were seeing the consequences of the violation of Adonai’s covenant. Yeshua taught the true meaning of Scripture, telling the crowd: “But do not do what they do, for they do not practice what they preach.”
He modelled his ministry on a service-oriented leadership, where the leader does not stand out from the group. As a popular prophet he performed healings and exorcisms as part of his public works, bringing a message of fulfilment and of a personal relationship with Adonai.
Drawing on a range of prophets from the Old Testament, Yeshua inaugurated a renewal movement similar to ‘leadership’ prophets. He continued to observe the practices of the Levitical sacrificial system, and encouraged his disciples to honour them and those who governed them. The crowds that gathered to see him evoke Micaiah’s image of leaderless sheep, and like Ezekiel, Yeshua predicts the abandonment of the Temple by the Shekinah. Like Jeremiah, although running the risk of being labelled a traitor, he remained the true spokesman for the covenant God. Above all, it is Elijah that is the role model of his ministry. The stories Yeshua told and acted out, and the parables he used, ‘... made it clear that he envisaged his own work as [beginning to bring] Israel’s history to its fateful climax…,’ which we are still waiting on. ‘He really did believe he was inaugurating the kingdom.’
In the gospels of Matthew, Luke and John, the crowds acknowledge the prophetic status of Yeshua, and the authorities feared to arrest him as the people held him to be a prophet. On the road to Emmaus Cleopas describes Yeshua as “... a prophet, powerful in word and deed ...”.
In Acts it is the Spirit who speaks through the apostles, while the risen Lord speaks through dreams and visions. Through the power of the Spirit, Agabus predicted a famine and Paul's coming sufferings, both of which occurred as prophesied. Judas and Silas were prophets who said much to “... strengthen and encourage the believers” with the guidance of the Spirit. Acts 13:1 also mentions a number of men who were prophets and teachers in the Church at Antioch.
Paul names himself as an apostle, but also describes his call in prophetic terms, and repeatedly affirms the role of prophets in the churches he founded and writes to. In Peter’s letter to the Jewish church, after quoting from Psalms and Isaiah, he calls them “a chosen people ... the people of God.” This is a reminder – a call to Tishuva – to return. This statement shows how God, through Christ, has created a community out of diversity. Prophecy was for the whole new community of believers who had been brought together by their common faith in Yeshua Messiah.
The function of prophecy in the early church was to give guidance and clear direction to believers to enable the church to carry out the mission of Christ. Luke presents Jewish prophecy as a continuation of Old Testament prophecy, which had been spoken only to Jews during the festival of Sukkot. He spoke of ‘the church itself [as] a prophetic, eschatological phenomenon, generated by the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost.’ Peter quotes Joel to show that his prophecy had begun to be fulfilled that day, in the face of a crowd accusing believers of drunkenness.
Even before the destruction of Jerusalem the newly formed church saw itself as the true inheritor of the new covenant and promises given to Israel, written on the hearts of believers, as promised in Jeremiah 31:33. However prophetic words would need to be weighed carefully, as they were not a literal transcript of God's words. Paul declared all believers in Messiah Yeshua were now the mouthpiece of God, declaring the counsel of the Lord, whether Jew or Gentile, regardless of sex, age or social status. They were the seed of Avraham and therefore heirs of the old covenant. Paul saw himself and those who preached the gospel as ‘ministers of a new covenant’ established by Adonai through faith in Messiah.
Yeshua is not only a prophet, he is one who, in the church age, sends the spirit of inspiration and prophecy to all Christians so that they may offer prophetic witness as well.
The implications of prophecy for Christianity today is that our personal relationship with Adonai continues, and that he still has words of encouragement and admonishment for us. And there are times when he will use us to speak into the lives of others.
Through prophecy, individuals are granted a word in season from Adonai as part of our on-going relationship with Him. This continued revelation brings spiritual blessings and vitality to our churches and to our community today, as long as we follow scriptural guidelines, and judge the revelation by its fruit.
